Enlightenment+Scientific+Revolution

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[|European Enlightenment Glossary] explains different enlightened ideas and who thought them. scroll down and click on "current entries" to look at others.

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1. Philosophy gains respect. Science emerges as a lesser branch--mathematics, astronomy, and physics (natural philosophy). ie new universities 2. The reemergence of Greek mathematics and were used in science during the Renaissance. 3. New technologies were needed to be used during the Age of Exploration. 4. Better equipment
 * Scientific Revolution**:(4) Causes
 * Copernicus, heliocentric view-** astronomer who did not agree with the discrepancies of Ptolemy's astronomy. This lead him to research the helio-centric view of the universe that was held by some ancient Greeks. He supported this view in his book //On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres//, published in 1543. While he was basically correct, he made two errors: 1) orbits are elliptical not circular and 2) he still believed in the crystalline spheres of Aristotle. Reactions: His view 1) created an uproar among the Protestants because they felt it undermined Scripture 2) suggested an infinite universe 3) made earth out to be just another planet and 4) undermined the crystalline sphere theory.


 * Tycho Brahe-** Danish astronomer who spent 20 years observing the stars and collecting data. His greatest contribution to the scientific revolution was the amount of data he collected as he was not a mathematician and could do nothing with the data. He believed his observations supported a helio-geo centric universe where the planets revolved around the sun, and the sun and planets in turn revolved around the earth. He left his data to his apprentice Johannes Kepler to decipher.


 * Johannes Kepler-** Brahe's assistant who was able to interpret his results. He believed in mystical mathematics relationships that cause harmony among the heavenly bodies. He used mathematics to prove that we live in a solar system, not a geocentric universe. He disposed of Aristotle and Ptolemy's rules of the universe.

1. The planetary orbits around the sun are elliptical, as opposed to old view that they were circular. 2. Planets do not move in a uniform speed in their orbits. 3. The time a planet takes to complete its orbit is directly related to its distance from the sun.
 * 3 Laws of planetary motion-** Johannes Kepler stated that


 * Galileo-** a mathematics professor who created the **experimental method.** He believed in controlled experiments that would prove theories instead of merely talking and debating about things, just as we still do today. He also created the **law of inertia.** He greatly influenced Isaac Newton and his laws of gravity.


 * laws of inertia-** Galileo's theory that an object in motion will continue its path until it is stopped by an external force and that rest is not the natural state of an object, as Aristotle supposed.


 * telescope-** the earliest known working telescope was in 1608 and is credited to Hans Lippershey and from that point on the telescope was reworked and remodeled into severl different versions.
 * Francis Bacon-** English philosopher and writer who encouraged the use of the scientific method: every statement should be backed up by hard evidence. This form of research would produce much practical scientific information.
 * empiricism-** Francis Bacon's idea that science should use inductive reasoning to produce useful information.
 * inductive method-** is also referred to as the scientific method which includes making observations and inferences, creating a hypothesis, experimenting to prove or disprove the hypothesis and coming up with a reasonable claim at the end.


 * Rene Descartes**- French philosopher and mathematician who found the correlation between geometry and algebra. Because of this discovery, he figured that all things should be doubted until they could be proven conclusively. Lead to his belief in Cartesian dualism. When his ideas where meshed with Francis Bacon's, the modern scientific method was produced.


 * deductive reasoning-** starting with a hypothesis and then using various experiments to prove that hypothesis correct, adjusting the hypothesis during the process. Descartes supported this reasoning style.


 * //cogito ergo sum// (“I think; therefore, I am”)-** Descartes's famous statement that proves that he must be real because he is thinking. He dismisses the theory that the world is just a dream, since he can think about whether or not he is real.


 * Cartesian dualism-** The theory that there are two substances: matter (physical objects), and the mind (spiritual beliefs).
 * scientific method-** a new method of discovery that used controlled experiments to prove hypothesis. It proves the data more completely.
 * Isaac Newton-** An English genius who attended Cambridge University. He wrote the book //Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy// generally known as //Principia//. Newton made what is called //Newton's Synthesis// where the key feature to it was the **law of universal gravitation.**


 * principle of universal gravitation**
 * this was newtons law which stated that every mass in the universe attracts every other mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses.


 * //Principia,// 1687- This book was Isaac Newton's most famous work. In this work Newton outlines his theory of universal gravitation as well as his views on the universe. This work greatly influences science in general and also founds modern physics.**


 * Vesalius** (1514-1564)- Flemish doctor who wrote and illustrated the first comprehensive human anatomy textbook. He redefined anatomy and biology by his careful descriptions and observations of the body from his dissections.


 * William Harvey-** English physician who was the first to recognize the full circulation of blood in the human body. He provided experiments and arguments to support his ideas.


 * Anton van Leeuwenhoek- Dutch biologist famous for advancement of the microscope. He was also the first to discover single celled organisms.**


 * Royal Society- An exclusive scientific community in Britain that included Isaac Newton among its members. The purpose of the Royal Society was to be a place where the best minds in science in Britain could go to discuss new ideas and study old ones as well to get funding for experiments and to just conduct experiments. The Royal Society also was man exclusive, no women, and served as the royalty's special reserve of scientific intellect.**


 * Enlightenment-** The new world-view of the eighteenth-century which played a large role in shaping the modern mind by growing out of a diverse and often conflicting mix of ideas. The greatest contribution the Enlightenment created was the idea of **reason** which used rational thought to answer questions.
 * Deism-** The world view that God is the creator, but he does not actively participate in the world. Because they believe a supernatural being is not actively intervening in the world, deists typical reject the ideas of miracles and prophesy. The only way to know God is through reason (a typical characteristic of ideas from the Enlightenment)
 * John Locke,** //**Two Treatises of Civil Government**- States the inalienable rights of all people: life libertree, and property.//
 * tabula rasa- ** Principle of John Locke stated in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. States that the human mind is a blank slate which is written on by a human's experiences within his/her environment. States that all ideas are derived from experience.
 * // philosophe- //** Educated French philosophers who wanted to bring the "light" to the ignorant. They asked questions about life, God, nature, good and evil, and cause and effect. They wanted to use knowledge and reach the public with that important knowledge.


 * Voltaire- ** real name was Francois marie arouet but used the pen name of voltaire. wrote more than 70 volumes. his main focus throughout his works was the glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. He was a diest and was tolerant of everyone, but he did not appreciate organized religion.

//**“Ecracsez l’infame”** -// One of Voltaire's most famous quotes, saying "crush the infamous." It refers to distrust for the monarch and clergy that was held by the people//.//

**Baron de Montesquieu,** //**Spirit of Laws**:// Montesquiea also wrote the persian letters which was a work that was a series of letters from persian travelers to their home country, who critizied exisiting practices and customs of the europeans. The spirt of laws was a narrative study of republics, monarchies and despostism which showed an inquiry in the emerging social sciences.


 * checks and balances -** Division of power within goverment (the upper class in this time period). Does not directly advocate democracy.


 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)-** A paranoid individual,he lived as an outcast with his lowly wife. He was very rational and believed women should maintain passive, subservient roles in society and the home (traditional views). Early influence for romanticism and education of children. Wrote the Social Contract (1762). Advocated popular sovereignty


 * //Social Contract,// 1762-** Written by a very paranoid man. Argued that the general will of the people is both "sacred and absolute."


 * General will-** sacred and absolute, reflects the common interests of all the people, who have displaced the monarch as the holder of sovereign power.


 * “noble savage**” - idealized concept of the innate goodness of man when not influenced by the corrupted civilization. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a major advocate of this theory


 * Denis Diderot, //The Encyclopedia-//** A collection of articles addressing many Enlightenment topics. Banned by many countries after publications in 1751. Therefore, people were inspired to read it. All 7 volumes were published as final copy (1765).


 * Marquis de Beccaria-** Italian philosopher and politician and criminologist. Stood for Reason, and the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Influenced utilitarianism with his book //On Crimes and Punishment//


 * Wrote //On Crimes and Punishment// (1764)-** first major argument against the death penalty (reasons: the state had no right to take a life, and it is not an effective means of punishment). It also said punishment should be a preventive measure, proportionate to the crime committed, and speedy. The certainty of punishment is what makes punishment an preventive measure and trials should be open to the public.


 * Francois Quesnay-** consulting physician to Louis XIV who eventually took to economics. Published //Tableau Economique// which said the relationship betweent the classes was the flow of money between them.

// **physiocrats**- // economists who believed government should not interfere with the operation of the natural economic lawas and that land was the source of all wealth. Commonly considered the first scientific school of economics.


 * Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1727-1790)-** A famous book saying that government should not play any part in the economy, but rather an invisible hand should control the economy. If there is competition instead of monopolies, the prices will never be too extreme, and the quality of good shall remain higher.


 * salon movement:** created an independent cultural realm freed from religious dogma and political censorship. salons united members of the intellectual, economic, and social elites. common people usually werent invited. they were also used as informal schools for women. this is the place people when to discuss ideas and thoughts about certain subjects/ philosophies. madame geoffrin had one of the most famous salons.


 * Mary Wollstonecraft** (1759-1797): an advocate for women's rights. wrote //A Vindication for the Rights of Woman// which said that through education would come emancipation.


 * Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach-** a French encylopeadist and philosopher. Major adovate of atheism and materialism. Some philosophes were put off by his extreme views.


 * David Hume- spoke against reason, saying instead that the mind is a bundle of impressions that originate from sensory experiences.**


 * Jean de Condorcet (1743- 1794)- placed people's abilities to think in nine stages. The tenth stage represented perfection.**


 * Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804) -** Born in East Prussia. Major advocate of free pubication of ideas. Thought Enlightenment would follow if serious thinkers were allowed to freely publish their ideas. Can't have been a revolutionary: believed all individuals should follow all laws and should be punished for irrational criticism.


 * classical liberalism-** liberty and property are intimately connected (possibly to the point of liberty equaling property). Economic systems that are based on private property is consistant with individual liberty.


 * German pietism-** a religious reform movement. Emphasized personal faith against the main Lutheran stress on doctrine and theology over Christian living. Spread and became concerned with social and educational matters.


 * Methodism**: believers did not want to lapse back into the wars that had been fought over fine points of doctrine, but they still believed that Christianity should be a matter of scripture and belief. The goal of Christian preaching was to create a connection with god. In Germany it was called Pietism; in New England the term was "The Great Awakening;" in England it was called ** Methodism. **

The rigid class system meant that wealthy Anglicans neither cared about the poor factory workers or associated with them. Methodism gave them a voice. Methodists were not only encouraged to pray, they were also encouraged to work for social improvements.
 * John Wesley (1703- 1791**): The fifteenth of nineteen children, forced to remember and recite passages of the bible to his mother. Enrolled into Oxford university. Because he was so methodical, he and a group of his friends were called Methodists. Wesley later became an Anglican priest.


 * Jansenis**: a rebound effect of the Catholic Refromation. Some Catholics felt the Catholic Refromation went in the wrong direction and they tried to redirect it with the Jeansenis movement.


 * Enlightened Despotism**: Rulers were influenced by the enlightenment of others. The rulers also ruled with the intent of improving the lives of their subjects to strengthen and reinforce their own athority and power.


 * Frederick the Great-**He rebelled against his family a lot when he was a young child. In 1730 he ran away from home in which he was imprisoned and compelled to watch his companion beheaded. He wanted to go beyond superficial commitment to enlightenment culture for himself and his country. He was tolerant of religion and philosophical ideas. He promoted advancement in knowledge, more schools and scholars publishing their own works. His primary tools for the enlightenment was the legal system and bureaucracy.


 * War of Austrian Succession:** Triggered by the succession of Maria Theresa to the vast Hapsburg lands after the death of Charles VI. Fredrick the Great of Prussia had taken Silesia without warning, defying the Prussian promises to respect the Pragmatic Sanction. In one swoop, Fredrick managed to take most of Silesia and double the population of Prussia to six million people.


 * Silesia- A region in south western poland known for its high ethic german poulation and metal resources. This region was fought over between germany, pland and austria many times after the war of austrian sucession, even in world war two, the ony differance here was that germany was fighting poland and later russia for silesia, not austria.**


 * Seven Years’ War:** Maria Theresa was determined to retake Silesia, so she allied herself with France and Russia to help her take it back, as well as to conquer Prussia and then divide up its territory. Fredrick fought long and hard, and held out until Russia's Peter III came to the throne and called off the attack against him, saving Prussia.


 * “Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”-** beginning of the Seven Years War when Prussia dropped its alliance with France and hooked up with England and Russia. Austria got nervous and signed with France, then France and England went to war (who else)


 * Treaty of Paris-** among the 9 million other Treaty of Paris's, Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the 7 Years war (which is also known as the French and Indian War in North America). England ended up getting most of France's empire, including all of France's North American property east of the Mississippi.


 * “first servant of the state”-** Frederick the Great's quote saying that his job is not to rule the people, but rather to serve them. He was not an absolutist, but an enlightened monarch who wanted to better his country.

1.- bring sophisticated culture of wester europe to russia. (imported architects, sculptors, musicians, and intellectuals, published the //Encyclopedia// and won good press, set a tone for the entire Russian nobility) 2. -domestic reform( better laws= major concern,restricted practice of torture, allowed limited religious tolleration, and improved education and local government strength.)3- territorial expansion( subjugated the last descendants of the Mongols, Crimean Tartars, and began the conquest of the Caucasus. greatest= partition of Polant
 * Catherine the Great-** She was the Russian empress, intelligent, and attractive. She worked for the crown. She plotted against her unpopular husband to get the crown. She set out to rule in an enlightened manner


 * Pugachev Rebellion**: lead by a cossack soldier, Emelian Rugachev who proclaimed himself the true tsar. He was angry with the ruling of Catherine the Great and issued "decrees" abolishing serfdom, taxes and army services. The uprising caused the death of many nobles. Rugachev was eventually captured and executed. This uprising caused Catherine the need to "crack down" on peasants and give more power to the upper class.


 * Polish partitions-** Poland was partitioned a total of three times by Russian, Prussia, and Austria. each time the country got successivly smaller until it was finally wiped off the map. Poland was not remade a country until after WWII.


 * liberum veto-** historical right of the Polish members of Parliamant to veto any bill they didn't like. One could singlehandedly bring down a bill. Essentially ment that every bill had to be passed unanimously. This paralyzed the central government of Poland.


 * Maria Theresa**-mother of Joseph II and daughter of Charles VI. Inherited land from her father through the Pragmatic Sanction, which was promptly invaded by Frederick the Great of Prussia and other European countries in the War of Austrian Succession. She pitifully tried to defend it but lost almost all of Silesia. This made her determined to improve the state. She limited he pope's power, strengthened bureaucracy, smoothed out provincial differences, revamped taxes, and reduced nobles' power over serfs.


 * Pragmatic Sanction of 1713:**-Habsburg monarch Charles V controlled the barely stitched together state of the "hereditary provinces" of Austria, the kingdom of Bohemia, and the kingdom of Hungary. In order to keep the Habsburg territories together after his succession, Charles spent a lot of his reign getting his family, the 3 different Estates in the territories, and other European states to allow his heir to inherit all of the Habsburg possessions. This was violated when several states took land from Maria Theresa after she took the throne.


 * Joseph II (1780-90)-** son of Maria Theresa. Known as one of the three great enlightened rulers. Came to throne in 1780, wasting no time for reform. He closely controlled Catholic church to produce better citizens, granted religious toleration, and gave civic rights to Protestants and Jews. The Austrian ruler also abolished serfdom and made peasant labor obligations turn into cash payments. Died at age 49 and brother Leopold II canceled Joseph's reforms.