Age+of+Nationalism


 * Red Shirts: Giuseppe Garibaldi's guerilla warfare unit that "liberated" the Kingdom of Two Sicilies during Italy's unification process in 1860. They outwitted the 20,000 man royal army and were essential in helping Cavour unite all of Italy under Victor Emmanuel, though he backed the Red Shirts only covertly**


 * Zollverein-**the trade union of the German states; Austria was excluded by Prussia due to rivalry for supremacy in Germany. High tariffs were used to exclude Austria.

Homestead Act-1862 act that gave western land to settlers in the U.S. Along with the 13th Amendment of 1865, which ended slavery, reinforced the concept of free labor taking its chances in a free market economy.
 * modernization: the changes that enable a country to compete effectibely with the leading countries at a given time. Russia and Turkey fell behind during the Industrial Revolution and had to resort to modernization to catch up to the leading countries of Europe. Modernization had to be used because Freidrich List's theory about falling behind being dangerous was coming true for both the afore mentioned countries.**

**zemstvo- The name of the local government instituted during the reforms in russia prior to the 1905 revolution. Members of the zemstvo were elected in a three class system of towns, peasant villages, and noble landowners. Russian liberals hoped that this would lead up to an elected national parliament, but that never happened.** **Bloody Sunday-** many people gathered outside of the winter palace in st. petersburg for a peaceful protest, while trying to give the tsar a petition stating what was wrong in their lives, still thinking the tsar cared about them. they did not know that the tsar had fled the palace because he did not care about them. troops opened fire on the protestors killing and wounding hundreds, while turning the majority of the workers against the tsar. This massacre caused the people to see that the tsar was not on their side as they had believed for many years. **October Manifesto-** Granted full civil rights to citizens and promised a parliament, which was referred to as the Duma. the manifesto split opposition because the middle class began to help the government against the peasantry. It also repressed uprisings. **Duma-** A form of parliament, that had legislative power and was granted through the October Manifesto. Passes the new constitution which is referred to as the fundamental laws. The fundamental laws gave the tsar the power to do whatever he wanted. The Duma could debate laws, but the tsar could ultimately veto any that were against him. Many saw this as a step backward so many revolted and the duma was dismissed. Duma is also the shade of brown Mr. Adamson will be when he returns from his trip.
 * Reichstag- ** the german parliment body that was headed by Bismarck and had very little real power but was elected by universal male suffrage.

-popularly elected lower house of Germany. Combined with chancellor Bismarck to form strong national government. Bismarck tried to keep a majority in the Reichstag which gave many opportunities to political parties. Reichstag made people feel trot vote counted and now they were a part of government because they were included in electing the lower house. **Kulturkampf**-Bismarck's attack on the Catholic church or the "struggle for civilization." Pope Pius XI's declaration of papal infallibility freaked a lot of people out but the German Catholics generally stuck with the Catholic Party and blocked hostile laws toward the church. So it was only successful in Protestant Prussia so Bismarck abandoned it in 1878. **Dreyfus Affair**- Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, was accused of treason in 1894 for allegedly having communicated French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. France was split, on one side was the military which had manufactured evidence against Dreyfus and was very anti-Semetic, and the other side was the civil libertarians and radical republicans, who supported Dreyfus's claim of innocence. Dreyfus was eventually found innocent. France severed ties with the Catholic church as a result of the ordeal. France, who was on the brink of unity, had now also been split.

**People’s Budget-** bill designed to increase spending on social welfare services. In 1906, the Liberal party came to power in Great Britain and the House of Lords vetoed the House of Common's passed People's Budget. The king threatened to end their majority so the Lords gave in. This caused a rush of social welfare measures to be passed. The Irish nationalists voted for it in order to obtain their home rule.

**Zionism:** The belief held and stived for, especially by the British, that the Jews should return to Isreal and have their own nation-state. The actual creation of the state did not happen until after WWII.

**revisionism- a change in socialist strategy where socialist unions use collective bargaining and demonstrations as an alternative to violent revolution. Marx favored the latter and didn't really keep up with the times.**

**revolution of 1905**- In Russia after they lost a war to Japan. The middle class rose up wanting their political power to equal their economic power (this seems familiar for some reason) and demanded the government to hear them. Factory workers wanted better wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions as well as the right to organize and such. The country peasents wanted reforms that actually made their lives better. The minorities were influenced by nationalism and wanted autonomous rule. After the massacre on Bloody Sunday in January 1905, the worker striked (struck?), the peasents uprised (uprose? rose up?), the troops mutinied, and the minorities revolted. A flustered and falling apart absolutist government decided to grant the people their demands with the October Manifesto, which granted civil liberties and promised an elected legislature (the Duma), but the promises turned out to be empty and really a step backward when the Duma had no real power and the Tsar was still in control. Let's just say that the communist manifesto of Marx was going to look really good when presented by Lenin in a few years.

**Crimean War- Was started on account of Russia and France's dispute on who's job it was to protect the Christian shrines in the Ottoman Empire and the war was mainly in the Crimea (hence the name of the war), located in modern-day Ukraine. For obvious reasons the Russians wanted to protect the shrines so they'd have a more Russian Orthodox influence while France wanted them to have a Roman Catholic influence. The combined powers of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia crushed the Russians and showed them just how far backwards Russia was.**

**Florence Nightingale:** British nurse in the Crimean war who was appalled by the conditions of battle hospitals. She worked to improve these and revolutionized nursing to build the basis of what it is today. She also started the Red Cross. no big deal.

**Second French Republic-** The French Republic elected Louis Napoleon for a four year term. The National Assembly did not allow Napoleon to run for a second four year term, so he conspired with the military and dismissed the Assembly. He gained the love of the people by passing universal male suffrage.As a result, they voted in the plebisite to make him ruler of France. LOuis then eventually did some liberal reforms to the government. He encouraged new investment banks, massive railroad construction, general economic expansion, and he also supported credit unions and better housing for the working class. A constitution was also created.

**Second French Empire-** created by Napoleon III and lasted from 1852-1870 during the Franco-Prussian war. The function of the empire was to guide the people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual peace. The French Constitution of 1852 was put into place on January 14, 1852 which was anti-parliamentary.

**Napoleon III-**The nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte; he was elected due to the people's love of his name and universal male suffrage. He also comforted against the idea of socialism as a strong central leader. Finally, he also had a "program" for france that he discussed in his pamphlets the "Napoleonic Ideas" and "The Elimination of Poverty". He dismissed the National Assembly, then legalized it through an election. His election as a hereditary emperor was practically unanimous. Towards the end of his reign, he liberalized the government, allowing for more political parties. He started the Crimean war so he could challenge the Russian's claim to the Ottoman Empire.

**King Victor Emmanuel-**While technically the King of Italy, he essentially was a figurehead and played second fiddle to Count Cavour.
**Giuseppe Garibaldi-** When Cavour wanted to get rid of him and his influence, Cavour sent Garibaldi south with his liberal agenda. Garibaldi found success in Sicily and Southern Italy. He was about to attack Rome when Cavour stopped Garibaldi and prevented this act to ensure the support of the Catholic Church. Garibaldi's acts led to Italy's unification.


 * Otto von Bismarck-** Junker politician. Goal: to secure power in the German lands for himself and Prussia. He had an unbounded want for power, but he was flexible and shrewd. Became the chief minister of Prussia in 1862. He skillfully neutralized Russia and France and, by doing so, was able to subdue Austria in 7 weeks. He then gave a very generous peace treaty in order to keep them on good terms for future use. He was always one step ahead in political matters and always kept " two irons in the fire" (he always had an alternative plan of action).

“**blood and iron”-**Bismarck's theory that change can only be achieved by war, not through fancy speeches. This speech talked about the way to unify the German territories.

**Prussian-Danish War, 1863-** Prussia and Austria won this war against Denmark for land that they believed was theirs. Denmark possessed two duchies. One of them, the Duchy of Holstein was part of the German federation. Danish and German people lived on this land. Denmark fought to control its duchies; however, both Prussia and Germany were against this move. Austria, Germany, and Prussia fought against Denmark starting on February 1, 1863. On October 30th, the fighting concluded and the Treaty of Vienna was signed, giving the two duchies to Austria and Prussia. About 200,000 Danes went under Germanic rule because, although Austria was given Holstein, Bismarck still had influence.

**Austro-Prussian War, 1866-** Prussia waged war against Austria for possession of the German confederation in the north. Prussian leaders realized the necessity of this war to remove Austrian influence from the north. They were very successful, and won in 7 weeks. Prussia gave Austria very reasonable peace terms. Austria agreed to withdraw from German affairs, no land was taken, and Austria had to pay a resonable indemnity. In doing so, Prussia ensured Austrian cooperation in future diplomatic matters.

**Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71-**In order to convince the southern German states to unify with the rest of the German Empire, Bismarck ignited a war with France. As expected, the French lost. When they did, Bismarck forced them to pay 5 billion francs as reparations as well as taking the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. This outrage ruined Franco-German relations for many years.