Wars+of+Religion

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 * Baroque Art**- Style which emphasized the use of clear detail to depict various emotions and scenes. Started in Rome in the early 1600's, the style was encourage by the Catholic church and was often used to depict religious themes through painting, sculpture, and other artistic means. A few of the great baroque artists include: Caravaggio, Poussin, Vermeer, Maderno, Rembrandt, Gentileschi, Rubens, and Bernini.


 * Bernini** - Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian artist. He had the ability to carve a dramatic moment into marble with a naturalistic realism to it. ( sculpture and architecture)


 * Caravaggio**- Full name: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. Walked the earthly landscape from 1571-1610. Italian artist who produced works between 1593 and 1610. Greatly influenced the baroque school of painting. Most of his works were done in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily. Combined realistic portrayals of physical and emotional human characteristics with a dramatic use of lighting to produce baroque-style works.


 * Peter Paul Rubens**- Present from 1577-1640. Flemish painter of the Baroque style. Emphasised movement, emotion, and color in his works. Known for his Counter-Reformation pieces. Also known for his portraits, landscapes, and paintings of mythological subjects.


 * Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis 1559** - ended the Hapsburg-Valois War in 1559, Officially France lost the wars and the Charles V won, leading to one of the first global empires stretching from Italy to the New World.


 * Phillip II** - Son of Charles V. He gained the low countries, Spain, Milan, and the kingdom of Sicily as well as all spanish possessions in the new world after Charles V abdicates his throne and divides his lands between Phillip and his brother Ferdinand. Failed in putting down the Dutch Revolt of 1568-1578. Tried and failed to return the Netherlands and Belgium to his kingdom. Was the driving froce behind the failed attempt to invade Engalnd with the Spanish Armada in 1588, spurred on by pope, who offered 1 million gold ducats, and his desire to cut off Dutch aid from England and his other desire to make England Catholic again.


 * Dutch Revolt**- The Spanish were ruling. They saw Calvinism as a threat. In most of the cities of the Netherlands there was a strong, militant minority of Calvinists.The middle class started to appeal to it because it had a intellectual seriousness. Calvinists encouraged opposition to "illegal"civil authorities, so the poorest class of Calvinists went on a rampage. They attacked the symbols and images of false doctrines. Cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp was the first target. There were some more revolts with 30 churches sacked and libraries burned. Philip II sent in troops to pacify Low countries. The duke of Alva interpreted "pacification" as ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents. Opened Coucil of Blood. This started the Civil war in the netherlands.


 * Antwerp** - important city in the low countries both economically and culturally. One of the largest seaports in Europe.


 * William of Orange** - called "William the Silent" for his discretion. Prominent Calvinist in the Low Countries who lead a revolt against King Phillip II of Spain in 1566-1587. His murder lead to Queen Elizabeth I's involvement in the Netherlands' revolt to restrain Catholic French's power.


 * Spanish Netherlands** - The southern 10 Dutch provinces that were held by the Spanish from between 1579 until 1713 when it was ceded to Austria. It compromised what would eventually become Belgium.


 * Spanish Armada** -Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded to the Pope's anger so Pope Sixtus V promised 1 million gold ducats to Phillip ll as soon as he landed in England. This caused Philip to send the Spanish Armada (130 ships) on May 9, 1588 into the English Channel. Poor weather, fighting amongst themselves, spoiled food, bad water, inadequate ammunition, and faster/more maneuverable/smaller English ships caused the Spanish to fall to the English fleet.


 * French Civil Wars** - A series of conflicts between the Catholics and the Huguenots of France which ended with the Edict of Nantes.


 * Catherine de Medici** -Mother of Henry ll's three sons, Francis ll, Charles lX, and Henry lll. During her sons' reigns she assisted in ruling. She wanted civil and religious peace and tried to achieve this during her children's governing.


 * St. Bartholomew Day Massacre** - a wedding between Protestant Henry of Navarre and Catholic daughter of Habsburgs; an attempt to unite the religions and stop fighting; Henry of Guise attacked on the night before the wedding and the fighting quickly spreads. Leads to **The War of Three Henrys.**


 * War of the Three Henry’s** - Protestant Henry of Navarre (Henry IV), Catholic Henry of Guise, and King Henry III- Guise wanted to destroy Calvinism and dethrone Henry III. Henry of Guise and Henry III end up dead and Henry of Navarre takes the French throne as Henry IV.


 * Henry IV** - Henry of Navarre is named Henry III's heir and becomes king; converts to Catholicism because "Paris is worth a mass." Issues the **Edict of Nantes**


 * Edict of Nantes** - first form of religious tolerance in Europe. King Henry IV passed this edict to legalize the French Hugonaut religion in Catholic France. The result was restored internal peace in France and preparation for French absolutism.


 * Thirty Years War** - Took place from between 1618-1648. Was started and primarily fought in Germany. It is divided into four phases (Bohemian Phase, Danish Phase, Swedish Phase, and French or International Phase). The end result of the war left much of Germany devastated and the Holy Roman Empire ceasing to exist although it still functioned as a federation.


 * Bohemian Phase** - Ferdinand of Styria becomes King of Bohemia and closes Protestant churches; leads Catholic League against Protestant Union (Fredrick) and is victorious-Catholicism reigns in Bohemia.


 * Danish phase** - Denmark's king Christian IV loses many battles to Albert of Wallenstien (he just wanted to gain power and prestige-ended up splitting army); led to **Edict of Restitution** after he loses


 * Edict of Restitution** - stated that Protestants had to return land taken from Catholics and that only Catholics and Lutherans can practice their faith; makes war drag on because it angered so many people.


 * Swedish Phase** - Sweden's king Gustavus Adolfus goes into German in order to protect Protestants; he was victorious (until he gets killed); ends Habsburg goal of uniting all German states.


 * French phase** - final phase of the Thirty Years War. France (a Catholic nation who had already been financially aiding the Protestants) officially enters the war; the longest phase in the war-lasts 13 years because neither side could win a decisive victory.


 * Treaty of Westphalia** - recognized 300 German princes as sovereigns; the Holy Roman Empire became a federation; France gained Allsace; Sweden gained money; pope lost all power in Germany; Calvinism added to **Augsberg Treaty**.


 * Oliver Cromwell** - Late 16th century English anti-royalist who lead an army aginst the army of the british monarch and won in 1649. After this victory he had himself put as the "lord protector" or head of the new goverment with broad exectuive powers vested in him and his council of state. He actually established a militart goverment in England with said country divided into 12 military districts. The system that he estblishes here fall apart after he dies in 1658


 * New Monarchs** - Rulers that came to power in Europe during the High Middle Ages (about 1450 to 1521). Such ruler include Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Henry VII of England, and Charles VII of France. These rulers often attempted to centralize the power of their kingdoms and curb the depricating effects of indepedent nobles within their jurisdictions.


 * Louis XI** -French King that began France's recovery.


 * Francis I** -French King who ruled with his son Henry ll through a small, efficient council. In 1539 he issued an ordinance that put royal law courts in control of all of France, leaving a centralized impact. Attempting to raise revenue, he increased taxes, heavily borrowed, sold public offices, and signed a treat with the papacy (Concordat of Bologna).


 * Taille** -A tax on the land that supported the French Crown and its upstanding army.


 * Concordat of Bologna, 1516** - Francis l agreed to recognize the supremacy of the papacy over a universal council, allowing the French crown to gain the right to appoint all French bishops/abbots. The monarchy then got a rich supply of money/offices/power over the church.


 * Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges** - an act issued by King Henry VII in which supreme power was shifted from the pope to a General Church Council. Additionally, election was required for ecclesiastical offices, the pope lost the ability to benefit monetarily from his decisions, and appeals to Rome were reduced.


 * Henry VII** - restored political stability in England


 * Star Chamber** - The Court of the Star Chamber was a court where the accused did not have to be shown evidence against them, and torture could be used to obtain confessions. Ran against English common-law but greatly reduced aristocratic troublemaking.


 * Ferdinand and Isabella** - Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile were two Spanish royals that married and united Spain as a whole. In 1492 they allowed Columbus to sail the ocean blue and discover the Americas. Along with that they expelled the Moors (Muslim North Africans) from Iberia and brought an end to the famed Reconquista. They also started the Spanish Inquisition which ensured Catholicism as the dominant religion in Spain and struck fear into the hearts of those who had beliefs that differed from the Church for generations to come.


 * Reconquista** - Long period during the Middle Ages when Christians attempted to retake the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula (the land of present-day Spain and Portugal). Occurred from about 700 a.d. to 1500 a.d.


 * Hermandades** - Spanish "Brotherhoods" given authority to act as the local police force or as judicial tribunals. Cruel punishments allowed them to be disbanded in 1498.


 * Hapsburgs** - Prominent royal house in the history of central Europe. Gained control of the Holy Roman Empire in the thirteenth century, and ruled those lands until the mid-1700's. Hapsburg descendant would also rule the kingdoms of Spain, Austria, and Bohemia around the 1500's and 1600's, thus creating a dynastic string of rulers in central Europe.


 * Holy Roman Empire** - Territory of Germany, Bohemia, Northern Italy, and much of the rest of central Europe that was under the control of a single ruler - the Holy Roman Emporer - from the mid 900's a.d. to about 1800 a.d. The territories of the Empire often respected the emporer as their ruler, but were not unified under many other circumstances.


 * Commercial Revolution** - goes with the age of discovery. The population increases from 70 to 90 million between 1500 and 1600. Influx of gold and silver from the Americas caused the price revolution (consistent inflation of prices). Empires became prominent as nation-states increased economic power and over seas colonies; the rise of capitalism began.


 * “God, glory, gold”** - one of the biggest factors behind the Spanish conquest of the New World. The goal was to convert natives into Christians, obtain fame and become rich when exploring new lands. Sometimes people would only want the gold and use God as the "main reason".


 * Age of Discovery** - new discoveries- The Earth is bigger than originally thought, and the discovery of the Americas and Caribbean Islands. Also known for the great advances in geography and technology. The renaissance started this curiosity to find more and keep learning.


 * Age of Expansion** - most countries wanted to gain new lands in the Americas


 * Age of Reconnaissance** - Named because of the European's geographic information, their fairly accurate outline of the earth.


 * Leaf Ericson** - Viking who discovered Greenland and some lands in the Americas; also established permanent settlements in Ireland, Iceland, England, Normandy and Sicily.


 * Prince Henry the Navigator** -Prince of Portugal at the start of the Age of Exploration. He never went on a voyage but funded many voyages down the coast of Africa.


 * Bartholomew Dias** -Portuguese explorer. He was the first explorer to round the Cape of Good Hope. He was trying to reach India but was forced to turn back due to bad conditions (weather, mutiny). Wanted to spread the word of God. Dias helped with the second voyage to India by helping to build a ship for Vasco de Gama.


 * Vasco de Gama** - Portuguese explorer who opened India to trade with Portugal in 1498. The trade network he established traded almost exclusively in spices and Indian cloth.


 * Amerigo Vespucci** -He was the first explorer to realize that the America's were actually a new continent and not China. The Americas were named after him.


 * Christopher Columbus** - Was and explorer, colonizer and navigator. discovered the americas on accident- thought he was in asia. He went on 4 main voyages, and sailed the Santa Maria, Pinta and the Nina. The main idea behind his voyages was to find a shorter route to Asia. Some think he was a terrible person, who treated the natives terribly, but in his time they way he treated them was actually decent. He is also scrutinized for not being the first to find the americas, multiple people had been there before him.


 * Bartolome de las Casas** - son of a man who sailed with Christopher Columbus. He was given land and was the first to criticize Christopher Columbus's treatment of the natives. He believed natives should be converted and not enslaved. He believed the natives were "fragile" and that Africans should be imported, "Apologetic History of the Indies"


 * Treaty of Tordesillas** -It was signed by Pope Alexander VI in 1492. It gave Portugal all the trading routes to the east and gave Spain all the new world land to the west.


 * Ferdinand Magellan** - commissioned by Charles V to find a direct route to Moluccas (coast of southeast Asia) in order to bring back spices. He died, but his crew found direct route and brought the spices back. The trip proved that the Earth was round and that it was bigger than Columbus had theorized.

“**Old Imperialism”** - The strategy of capturing large cities and main ports along the coasts of trade routes which the Portugese did efficiently


 * “Golden Age of Spain”** - Spain was gaining a lot of power, their population was increasing and the country was experiencing a price revolution. They bennefitted from the discovery of the Americas. They used the crops to be more self-sufficient.


 * Dutch East India Company** - Founded in 1602, it became a major part in Dutch imperialism. Expelled Portuguese from Ceylon and other East Indian islands.


 * Technological advances allowing** - Focused on mapping and geography. Ptolemy's Geography was a map of the world measuring 12,000 miles around. The Portuguese developed the caravel, a three masted ship. The la teen sail, rope rigging and the invention of the rudder enabled sailors to travel against the wind. The magnetic compass as well as the astrolabe ( determined latitude North of the equator) were vital to direction and position at sea.


 * exploration** - The act of searching for unknown areas and discovering their hidden secrets.


 * Columbian Exchange** - The trading sequence between the Europeans and the people of the Americas. This helped the Europeans in several ways, including improving their diet, wealth, and empire. The people of the America's lost a lot from this exchange, losing millions of people in terms of population as disease was spread from the Europeans.


 * Smallpox** - The European explorers brought it to the Americas. It was easily spread by animals, and the natives were unable to fight it off because they had not been exposed to the same domesticated animals. It caused horrible marks over the entire body for the natives and typically caused death. If not death, the victim would be covered in pock marks for the entirety of his or her life.


 * Potato** - A plant from the Americas that was brought over to Europe and flourished everywhere from Ireland to Germany. This increased the standard meal of a peasant much more than for them to just eat bread and salted meat.


 * Witch hunts** - witches were accused of being followers of the devil. they were accused of talking/planning something with the devil. characteristics: widows between 50 and 70 years old, their bodies showed their age. Between 100,000 and 200,000 women were officially tried for being a witch and between 40,000 and 60,000 were executed. They were people who could hurt other people or animals. (assemblies of witches were called sabbats--where they would participate in sex orgies & feasted on the flesh of infants) People believed that witches occured because women weren't under a man's supervision.